Sociology Revision Guide free essay sample

Broad definition which covers a wide range of beliefs -Does not necessarily include beliefs in a supra-human, supernatural being Focuses on the function of beliefs in society, and the way in which things that people regard as sacred can bind societies together, through shared values. Looks at the ways in which unconventional beliefs can be seen as sacred, i. e football. Substantiate and exclusivist-Bruce: religion is â€Å"beliefs, actions and institutions which assume the existence of supernatural entities with powers of moral purpose† Berger: Religion is a â€Å"sacred canopy† or shield providing supernatural protection against random and apparently meaningless events. Focuses on what religion actually is, involving supernatural, supra-human beliefs of some kind -Fits with what most people would regard as religion, i. Islam, Christianity etc, Though includes unconventional beliefs such as Wicca and paganism also. A definition adopted by most sociologists. Features of religion – Beliefs – in the supernatural, incomprehensible powers, or in symbols which are regarded as sacred. We will write a custom essay sample on Sociology Revision Guide or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Theology – a set of teaching and beliefs based on holy scripture Practice – Rituals and ceremonies which are either public or privately i. e praying or fasting Institutions – provide an organisation of the worshippers/believers, usually buildings like churches. Consequences – A set of moral or ethical values that are meant to guide or influence the everyday behaviour of believers. IDEOLOGIES PLURALIST -Sees the exercise of power in society as reflecting a broad range of social interest. -No-one has a single monopoly of power, a wide range of interest groups and individuals that live alongside each other compete for it. There is no single dominant ideology that reflects the interests of a group, which is something to be approved of and welcomed. -It denies that there may be an unequal distribution of power in society, and not all social roups are equally able to influence those with power, or get their views accepted – something which the pluralist ideology tries to conceal. MARXIST- The ideas that people hold are formed by their position in society. -Ideology is the ideas of particular social groups reflecting their interests. -Dominant ideology – In this case the ruling class. Mannheim – the ruling class deliberately obscure facts in order to conceal the inequalities of capitalist society, thus preserving existing patterns of inequality, the privileged position of the ruling class, and preventing any social change which may threaten them. Althusser –The ideology is spread through ideological state apparatuses -Gramsci – hegemony – the ruling class, through dominant ideology, maintains power by persuading the working class to adopt ruling class ideology as part of their own beliefs and values, thus consenting to the idea, and not being forced. FEMINIST Patriarchal ideology Supports and tries to justify the power of men in a patriarchal society. Ideas are mainly concerned with protecting and promoting the interests of men. RELIGION – Like ideology, offers a vision and means of understanding and explaining the world. Ideas are not necessarily tied to the interests of one social group. -Giddens – Religion is â€Å"shared beliefs and rituals that provide a sense of ultimate meaning and purpose by creating an idea of reality that is sacred, all-encompassing, and supernatural†. -There are three main aspects to religion: 1) Belief in the supernatural and spiritual 2) Faith on the p art of believers – a strong sense of trust and conviction in theories not based on testable evidence 3) A body of unchanging truth – i. e Christ. All new discovers are fitted into these existing frameworks. Religion can be part of an ideology – a social group may seek to use religion for its own ends i. e Marx religion is the opium of the people. SCIENCE -Science and religion are often seen as competing ways of explaining the world -Science aspires to objectivity and value-freedom based on research methods producing explanations based on empirical evidence. -Science may in some respects be an ideology as it is subjective to social pressures and prejudices Popper- Scientific method involves: 1)Hypothesis formation – capable of being tested against evidence derived from systematic observation 2) Falsification ) Prediction – through establishing cause and effect relationships rooted in evidence. Theory formation – If the hypothesis is capable of being tested against evidence and cannot be shown to be false, there is confidence that it is probably true, and a â€Å"scientific truth†. 5) Scrutiny – by other scientists, will only stand until evidence is discovered to prove it false. This means that ideas and theories in science are not unquestionably accepted as in religion, but are subject to constant challenge. Researchers should aim not to prove their hypotheses true, but false, as no hypothesis can ever be proven true, there is always the possibility of a future exception. Swans. -If Popper’s approach is accepted, science may displace religion as there is no evidence to disprove that god exists, or does not exist, thus preventing the chance of these stages. Kuhn – Challenges whether scientists actually set out to falsify their theories in practice. Scientists work within a paradigm which colours their views of their research, i. e how to approach it. When scientists test their hypotheses they try to fit their findings into their existing paradigm, rather than attempt to falsify, dismissing evidence which contradicts them as experimental errors or freak conditions. Thus, what passes for scientific truth may be more often an act of faith in scientific values. Bruce – It is the scientific method, rather than scientific discoveries that has provided the greatest challenge to religion as a belief system, thus moving society towards modernity due to the growing concern with evidence-based causes and effects, rather than the search for meanings. In modern society, religious explanations and superstitions are replaced by scientific explanations as scientific ones re shown to be wrong. I. e evolution V creation. -When phenomena occur we are now much more likely to look for scientific explanations, rather than blaming the devil. I . e. Mother Teresa’s TB cure. Comte – Society went through 3 stages to get to modernity, changing human understanding from a religious to scientific explanation of the world 1) Theological – where phenomena are explained through the supernatural i. e gods. ) Metaphysical – supernatural is diminished, more emphasis on entities and forces i. e nature. 3) Positive/scientific – stages 1 and 2 are displaced by rational scientific explanations based on evidence, logical thought, and reasoning. From this Weber spoke about a growing ‘disenchantment of the world’ Postmodernity – Society is changing so rapidly that it is marked by chaos and uncertainty Lyotard’s metanarratives can no longer be applied or held up as truth, and each one is now just one story among others, claiming different versions of the truth. Science can no longer claim superiority as it has failed to find cures i. e cancer, and has created issues like MRSA, global warming and climate change. Many scientists have shown themselves to be serving the interests of wealthy corporations, thus influencing research and stopping it from being value free. Science has lost its authority in society – a belief in science is akin to the faith of religion. Science may not be objective as: -the values and beliefs of researchers will determine what they study Career aspirations lead to scientists wanting to prove hypotheses right -Funding, and location may influence what and how research is carried out Science has not displaced religion as of yet, many millions identify themselves with the major religions of the world, and show loyalty in extremes such as People’s Temple, where 913 committed suicide, and terrorist attacks in the name of their God. ALSO – Many still hold some sort of faith, i. e superstition, ghosts, good luck charms. Conservative force- Building and maintaining social solidarity and social stability -Protecting traditional values and the existing state of affairs in society -Maintaining the status quo in society which COULD include supporting social change in order to return to traditional values and ways of life that are at risk of disappearing. Force for change- Concerned with how religious beliefs and organisations can change society and move it forward. There is a danger of overstating the importance of religion in either context, as there are often a number of other social, political and economic factors which influence the nature and extent of religion’s role in society. McGuire and Robinson There are four major interrelated factors which influence whether religion acts as a conservative force or force for social change: 1. The nature and extent of religious beliefs – if most in society hold religious beliefs, and these beliefs have strong moral codes which conflict with feat ures of existing society, religion is more likely to lead to criticism of society, and attempts to change it 2. The significance of religion in society’s culture – if religion is a central part of culture I. E. Ireland’s Catholicism, religion is more likely to be used as a means of justifying behaviour and change. 3. The extent of social involvement of religion – in societies in which religious organisations and religious figures are close to and involved with the people, and play important roles in the political and economic lifestyle of societies I. E. Iran, religion is more likely to influence social change. The aspect of social involvement of religious organisations in affecting social change is likely to become of even greater importance in societies which lack democracy, as protest and change have to be fed through religion. 4. The degree of central authority in religious organisations – in societies where religious organisations have strong central authority, religion is in a much better position to promote change or prevent it I. E. Saudi Arabia or Ir an where Islam has a very strong central authority, effectively used to influence the extent of changes in society. CONSERVATIVE FORCE – Functionalism -Religion promotes social harmony, integration and solidarity, through the reinforcement of the value consensus. Concerned with analysing the role of religion in meeting the functional prerequisites i. e. society can only survive if people share at least some common beliefs about right and wrong behaviour Religion is part of the way of life of society, and it helps to maintain cultural traditions and establish the basic rules of social life. Durkheim- social order and stability can only exist if people are integrated into society by a value consensus. Religion is an important element in achieving this, as it provides a set of beliefs and practices which unite people together. -All societies divide the world into the â€Å"sacred† and the â€Å"profane† – religion relates to the sacred aspect of society, though not necessarily the supernatural. -Totenism- Durkheim found this when studying Australian aborigines, and thought that it represents religion in its most basic form. The totem is created by society, and is so sacred because it is a symbol of the group or society When worshipping the totem, people are really worshipping society. Religious beliefs such as totenism, and the ceremonies and rituals that go with them, act as a kind of social glue, binding people together and building bonds By sharing beliefs, giving themselves a sacred quality, people develop moral ties between themselves, thus a collective conscience that exists outside of individuals, but controls individual behaviour, and how members of a community relate to each other, i. . in ethnicity. Though religion builds collective conscience, the supernatural dimensions will eventually disappear, and other civil religions might take on this role. HOWEVER this might make it questionable whether we are still talking about religion, or just other ways people are integrated into society. Malinowski – Religion reinforces social norms and values, promoting social solidarity. Provides explanations for events that are hard to explain and gives security in the face of uncertainty. Fulfils a need for emotional security and relieves situations of emotional stress which threaten social solidarity and stability, such as times of suffering, death, or illness that produce anxiety and tension, or even disillusionment, uncertainty and loss of meaning as people encounter events they cannot explain or understand. Provides a source of comfort, explanation and meaning for individuals when faced by such circumstances i. e. funeral services, both in terms of beliefs in life and death, and the support of family and friends around them. Evidence such as church attendance soaring during wartime supports this. Parsons – The role of religion is providing and underpinning the core values of any culture, and the social norms which regulate peoples’ behaviour. The set of moral beliefs and values in religion may become so deeply ingrained through socialisation that it has an effect on the lives of believers and non-believers alike. i. e. if social rules such as killing, stealing, and adultery are broken, people feel a guilty conscience, thus making it a powerful socialising and controlling influence over the individual. Religion gives meanings and explanations, thereby enabling people to make sense of otherwise inexplicable and uncontrollable life crises which might threaten order and stability in society. Religion provides a mechanism of adjustment, thus providing a means of returning to some sense of normality -Functionalists downplay the role religion can play in social change -Religion can only fulfil the roles which functionalists state it does it people actually hold religious beliefs and practices. Religiosity is diminishing and there is growing secularisation in many Western countries, shown by dramatic declines in church attendance; less than half of the population now believe in God. -In contemporary society, it is hard for a common religion to bring people together as there is now a wide diversity in faith -More often than not religion tears people apart: religious based wars conflict in the same religion – sunni and shia muslims in Iraq conflicts between religions – the Indian warfare between Muslims . nd Hindus. .It seems that the stronger the religious belief, the stronger the sense . that other religious beliefs are wrong, heretical, or evil. CONSERVATIVE FORCE –Marxism According to Marx, religion is â€Å"the sign of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions† -Religion is part of the dominant ideology -Althusser: religion is an ideological state apparatus, which spreads Gramsci’s view of hegemony -Religion has two main functions: 1. Religion as the â€Å"opium of the people†- Religion acts like a hallucinatory, pain-relieving drug, creating illusions among the oppressed which helps to maintain the power of the working class. -Religion eases the pain produced by poverty, exploitation and oppression in unequal class societies and help to overcome the effects of the alienation of individuals in capitalist society by providing some control, purpose and meaning in their lives. -Religion promises an eventual escape from suffering and oppression in this life with promises of an ecstatic future in life after death, making a virtue of poverty and suffering. If people believe that what happens to them is God’s will, and a test of faith to be rewarded in the afterlife, they are more likely to accept, or even welcome, their fate, not trying to change or improve their circumstances. Religion sometimes provides hope of supernatural intervention to solve problems on earth. I. E. Jehova’s witnesses believe that God will intervene and destroy the wicked on earth in the battle of Armageddon, and survivors will form a new paradise on earth. The promise for the future encourages people to not try and change things. 2. Religion legitimises and maintains the power of the ruling class – Religion is an instrument of social control and oppression used by the ruling class to justify their power and material wealth. -Religion provides a religious explanation and justification for inequality i. e. the Indian Hindu caste system – providing strict rules about how to behave in order for their body to be reincarnated to a higher level. If they don’t obey, their caste will be reborn onto a lower level. Inequalities are presented as being God-given and therefore legitimised and inevitable. The inequalities between rich and poor can’t be challenged or changed without questioning the authority of religion or God itself. In the past, religion has justified the power of kings – the ‘divine right of kings’. -religion can only act like opium if people actually take it – if people believe and if religion has an institutional power, which cannot be true as religiosity in contemporary Western society is declining. -Religion can act as a form of resistance to the powerful, and thus as an agent of social change I. E. Islamic fundamentalism- a vehicle for resisting Western cultural imperialism in their country by the Ayatollahs against the shah in the 1970s CONSERVATIVE FORCE – Interpretivist -Generally studies the meanings and interpretations of people in order to understand their behaviour -Religion is used by individuals to create meaning and interpretations of the world and of symbols. Thus religion can be used to manipulate peoples thoughts I. E. the shroud of turin, which in itself is an old piece of cloth with no meaning, value, or importance. – People have placed meaning on it for it to be special. Berger – Religion provides a universe of meaning that gives individuals a sense of meaning and explanation in the face of a chaotic world. -Religion provides a theodicy that gives meaning to and makes sense of seemingly inexplicable and fundamental questions about human existence I. E. the meaning of life, why poverty and suffering exist in the world. -Religion is a ‘sacred canopy’ that provides a shield for an individual and protects them from uncertainties, meaningless and pointlessness of life by helping them to interpret and make sense of the world and their position in it. By providing things that help make sense of the world such as Universes of meaning and theodicies, religion is contributing to the maintenance of social stability. -Berger argues that in modern society religion is losing its role for most people as the provider of a universe of meaning, being replaced by reason, logic, and science, thus creating growing secularisation and disenchantment with the world In the media saturated, globalised, post-modern society there is an increasing diversity and fragmentation of beliefs and lifestyles, thus meaning religion is losing its validity as a universe of meaning and theodicy. Thus, as Berger argues, the sacred canopy of religion has been lost, and religion no longer provides this source of meaning and morality. CONSERVATIVE FORCE – Religion as a compensator Stark and Bainbridge – examine the meaning and the functions of religion for individuals in society Religion meets the needs of individuals when their sense of social order i s disrupted by economic hardship, loneliness or grief Belief in God, religion and religious organisations provides a means for individuals to make sense of and come to terms with such events as well as answering fundamental questions. Religion acts as a general compensator, providing hope after death. Religion in some form or another will never disappear, as it provides answers to universal questions and offers general compensators meeting human needs FORCE FOR CHANGE –Weberism -To understand human behaviour it is necessary to examine the meanings people give to events and ideas, which can have important consequences for the way they think and act – religion is an important component of this. The evolution of new religious idea can stimulate social and economic change as people act in terms of their beliefs religion could be an important force in social change, including economic change. Calvinism Weber sought to explain why capitalist industrialisation developed first in Western Europe rather than in other parts of the world so studied Calvinism -Calvinist beliefs had an important influence on the development of an industrial capitalist economy and class. -Weber argued hat for capitalism to develop, both the normative conditions and material conditions were needed, and saw C17th Calvinism as producing the normative conditions which made the protestant work ethic which provided the ‘spirit of capitalism’ that encourage capitalist development According to Weber, Calvinism alone provided the rationality and religious ideology and ethics which encouraged the development of capitalist industry. Features of Calvinism and the Protestant work ethic 1. Predestination – their fate is already decided by God, but there is no way of knowing if you are a chosen one. The solution to this is to become involved in ‘intense worldly activity’. 2. The Protestant ethic emphasised values and virtues like hard work, thrift and modesty and the avoidance of idleness, time wasting, excessive sleep and self-indulgence. 3. Hard work and material success were seen as religious virtues and a likely sign of being one of God’s chosen, as was living life to these values. 4. Valued the pursuit of wealth and making money, and promoted the virtues of reinvesting profits back into the business rather than spending them on luxuries and self-indulgent consumption -Thus, a major reason why capitalist industrialisation developed first in Western Europe, as hard work, self-discipline and making money to re-invest and expand a business were not just part of a good capitalist business practice, they were also good religious morality according to the Calvinists. SOCIAL CHANGE – Evidence Bruce and Islamic Fundamentalism – consists of ideas based on the literal meanings of the words in the Qur’an and literal interpretations. Also a belief in and a return to the true form of religion, such as C7th Mecca. -Islam is a major international force for change late C20th and early C21st – American Twin Towers bombing London transport bombing Wars in Afghanistan/Iraq RELIGIOUS ORGANISATIONS -Various attempts have been made to categorise the different types of organisation through which people express and practice their religious beliefs. The typology is based on factors like structure, relationship with the state, and commitment required from members, based on the work of Weber, Niebuhr, Troeltsch, and Wallis. -The typologies are really ideal types, and no religious group will conform exactly to the categories outlined, and may infact combine aspects of each type, or develop or change over time. Much of the work is based on Western Christian religions, and therefore do not necessarily apply to other faiths. World-rejecting: in opposition to the world, reject many of the dominant norms and values of society, and replace them with alternative beliefs and practices. Members are likely to live their lives in different ways to other members of society World-accommodating: generally accept the dominant norms and values of society, and members will live similar lifestyles to other members of society World-affirming: accept society as it is, and offer individuals the opportunity for self-improvement within it. Members are likely to live similar lives to other members of society, apart from their interest in what many regard as deviant, bizarre, esoteric or obscure matters. Churches and Denominations –relatively minor differences, other than size, influence, and relationship to state. -both have a bureaucratic structure – a hierarchy of officials -Religious pluralism and growing secularisation means that many churches and . denominations do not expect or get a high degree of commitment. Churches and denominations are becoming more alike, more tolerant of other groups and . , and co-exist happily alongside eachother – thus, the idea of a ‘church’ may now be . obsolete, with the term ‘denomination’ more accurately describing religious organisations. Sects and Cults – tend to be seen as more deviant as they involve beliefs and behaviour that are seen as odd, weird . or bizarre, or a threat to existing society The terms can be used interchangeably, with the same group sometimes being classified as both. Barker- the terms sects and cults have such a stigma and pejorative attached to them that they .. have been abandoned altogether the mass media’s treatment of sects and cults means that they are associated in the popular . imagination with groups that are evil, controlling and manipulative, perhaps harmful and . rainwashing their members.